Frits Bolkestein

Frederik "Frits" Bolkestein (born 4 April 1933) is a Dutch retired politician and energy executive who served as Leader of the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD) from 1990 to 1998 and European Commissioner for Internal Market from 1999 until 2004 under Romano Prodi.

Frederik Bolkestein was born on 4 April 1933 in Amsterdam in the Netherlands.

His father was president of the Court in Amsterdam.

His grandfather, Gerrit Bolkestein, was Minister of Education, Arts, and Sciences to the Dutch government-in-exile of 1939 to 1945.

Bolkestein's mother was born in the Dutch East Indies to Dutch parents.

Bolkestein attended the Barlaeus Gymnasium in Amsterdam from 1945 to 1951, where he majored in both arts and sciences.

Upon completing his gymnasium education, he was an undergraduate in mathematics at Oregon State College from 1951 to 1953.

Subsequently, he went to the University of Amsterdam, where he received a BSc degree in mathematics and physics in 1955.

In 1959, he received a MA degree in philosophy and Greek from the same university.

Bolkestein worked as a corporate director for Royal Dutch Shell from May 1960 until July 1976 and as a manager for an engineering company in Amsterdam from September 1976 until January 1978.

Before entering Dutch politics, Bolkestein worked for the oil company Royal Dutch Shell from 1960 to 1975.

During this period he was assigned to postings in East Africa, Honduras and El Salvador, Indonesia, the United Kingdom, and France.

Bolkestein subsequently received a BSc degree from The London School of Economics in 1963, and an LLM degree from Leiden University in 1965.

During his studies in Amsterdam, Bolkestein was editor for the satirical student magazine Propria Cures.

He was also a member of the board of the student union ASVA.

During his tenure with Shell, he completed the first part of the economics program at the London School of Economics in 1964 and he also completed a law degree at Leiden University, graduating in 1965.

In Paris, he served on the board of the Shell Chimie from 1973 to 1975.

In 1976, Bolkestein wrote an English language play named Floris, Count of Holland, under the anagrammatic pseudonym of Niels Kobet.

Bolkestein left Shell in 1976 and became a member of parliament for the VVD.

Bolkestein became a member of the House of Representatives shortly after election of 1977 taking office on 16 January 1978 serving as a frontbencher and spokesman for Economic Affairs.

Between 1978 and 1999, when he became European Commissioner, he was member of parliament for 17 years.

After the election of 1982 Bolkestein was appointed as State Secretary for Economic Affairs in the Cabinet Lubbers I taking office on 5 November 1982.

From 1982 to 1986, he served as Minister of International Trade.

After the election of 1986 Bolkestein was not offered a cabinet post in the new cabinet and returned to the House of Representatives on 3 June 1986 serving as a frontbencher and spokesman for Foreign Affairs and International trade.

Bolkestein was appointed as Minister of Defence in the Cabinet Lubbers II following a cabinet reshuffle taking office on 24 September 1988.

After joining the parliament again, he was Minister of Defence from 1988 to 1989.

After the election of 1989 Bolkestein again returned to the House of Representatives on 14 September 1989.

Shortly after the election, party leader and parliamentary leader Joris Voorhoeve announced he was stepping down and Bolkestein announced his candidacy to succeed and was selected as his successor on 30 April 1990.

In 1990, he was elected Leader of the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy of the VVD, a position he held until 1998.

During the 1990s, he was very successful as the political frontman of the VVD.

As an opinion leader, he was known for his daring and controversial positions on such issues as multicultural problems in Dutch society, political dualism between government and parliament, and the structure and expansion of the European Union.

From 1990 to 1994 he was the parliamentary opposition leader and continued his outspoken and independent style when his party was part of the government from 1994.

For the election of 1994, Bolkestein served as lijsttrekker (top candidate) and following a successful cabinet formation with Labour Leader Wim Kok and fellow Liberal Leader Hans van Mierlo formed the Cabinet Kok I with Bolkestein opting to remain as Parliamentary leader.

During the provincial elections of 1995, his criticism of Dutch immigration policies made his party the largest of the country.

Bolkestein also served as President of the Liberal International from 15 April 1996 until 18 April 2000.

In 1996, his political integrity came under heavy criticism, because it was revealed he had written a letter to Health Minister Els Borst, in which he asked her to help a pharmaceutical company, of which Bolkestein was member of the board of commissioners.

The incident was known as the "Dear Els"-incident, because the letter was addressed to Borst personally.

He was president of the Liberal International, the world federation of liberal political parties.

For the election of 1998 Bolkestein again served as lijsttrekker (top candidate) but shortly thereafter announced that he was stepping down on 30 July 1998 but continued to serve in the House of Representatives as a backbencher.

In August 1999 Bolkestein was nominated as the next European Commissioner in the Prodi Commission, and was giving the heavy portfolios of Internal Market and Services and Taxation and Customs serving from 16 September 1999 until 22 November 2004.