C. H. Waddington

Conrad Hal Waddington (8 November 1905 – 26 September 1975) was a British developmental biologist, paleontologist, geneticist, embryologist and philosopher who laid the foundations for systems biology, epigenetics, and evolutionary developmental biology.

Although his theory of genetic assimilation had a Darwinian explanation, leading evolutionary biologists including Theodosius Dobzhansky and Ernst Mayr considered that Waddington was using genetic assimilation to support so-called Lamarckian inheritance, the acquisition of inherited characteristics through the effects of the environment during an organism's lifetime.

Waddington had wide interests that included poetry and painting, as well as left-wing political leanings.

Conrad Waddington, known as "Wad" to his friends and "Con" to family, was born in Evesham to Hal and Mary Ellen (Warner) Waddington, on 8 November 1905.

His family moved to India and until nearly three years of age, Waddington lived in India, where his father worked on a tea estate in the Wayanad district of Kerala.

In 1910, at the age of four, he was sent to live with family in England including his aunt, uncle, and Quaker grandmother.

Waddington reflected that this early education prepared him for Alfred North Whitehead's philosophy in the 1920s and 30s and the cybernetics of Norbert Wiener and others in the 1940s.

He attended Clifton College and Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge.

He took the Natural Sciences Tripos, earning a First in Part II in geology in 1926.

His parents remained in India until 1928.

During his childhood, he was particularly attached to a local druggist and distant relation, Dr. Doeg.

Doeg, whom Waddington called "Grandpa", introduced Waddington to a wide range of sciences from chemistry to geology.

During the year following the completion of his entrance exams to university, Waddington received an intense course in chemistry from E. J. Holmyard.

Aside from being "something of a genius of a [chemistry] teacher," Holmyard introduced Waddington to the "Alexandrian Gnostics" and the "Arabic Alchemists."

From these lessons in metaphysics, Waddington first gained an appreciation for interconnected holistic systems.

In 1928, he was awarded an Arnold Gerstenberg Studentship in the University of Cambridge, whose purpose was to promote "the study of Moral Philosophy and Metaphysics among students of Natural Science, both men and women."

In the early 1930s, Waddington and many other embryologists looked for the molecules that would induce the amphibian neural tube.

The search was beyond the technology of that time, and most embryologists moved away from such deep problems.

In the late 1930s, Waddington produced formal models about how gene regulatory products could generate developmental phenomena, showed how the mechanisms underpinning Drosophila development could be studied through a systematic analysis of mutations that affected the development of the Drosophila wing.

In a period of great creativity at the end of the 1930s, he also discovered mutations that affected cell phenotypes and wrote his first textbook of "developmental epigenetics", a term that then meant the external manifestation of genetic activity.

Waddington introduced the concept of canalisation, the ability of an organism to produce the same phenotype despite variation in genotype or environment.

He also identified a mechanism called genetic assimilation which would allow an animal's response to an environmental stress to become a fixed part of its developmental repertoire, and then went on to show that the mechanism would work.

Waddington, however, came to the view that the answers to embryology lay in genetics, and in 1935 went to Thomas Hunt Morgan's Drosophila laboratory in California, even though this was a time when most embryologists felt that genes were unimportant and just played a role in minor phenomena such as eye colour.

His first marriage produced a son, C. Jake Waddington, professor of physics at the University of Minnesota, but ended in 1936.

In his book The Scientific Attitude (1941), he touched on political topics such as central planning, and praised Marxism as a "profound scientific philosophy".

He took up a Lecturership in Zoology and was a Fellow of Christ's College until 1942.

His friends included Gregory Bateson, Walter Gropius, C. P. Snow, Solly Zuckerman, Joseph Needham, and John Desmond Bernal.

His interests began with palaeontology but moved on to the heredity and development of living things.

He also studied philosophy.

He then married architect Margaret Justin Blanco White, daughter of the writer Amber Reeves, with whom he had two daughters, the anthropologist Caroline Humphrey (1943–) and mathematician Dusa McDuff (1945–).

During World War II he was involved in operational research with the Royal Air Force and became scientific advisor to the Commander in Chief of Coastal Command from 1944 to 1945.

After the war, in 1947, he replaced Francis Albert Eley Crew as Professor of Animal Genetics at the University of Edinburgh.

He would stay at Edinburgh for the rest of life with the exception of one year (1960–1961) when he was a Fellow on the faculty in the Center for Advanced Studies at Wesleyan University in Middletown, Connecticut.

His personal papers are largely kept at the University of Edinburgh library.

In 1972, Waddington founded the Centre for Human Ecology in the University of Edinburgh.

Waddington's epigenetic landscape is a metaphor for how gene regulation modulates development.

Among other metaphors, Waddington asks us to imagine a number of marbles rolling down a hill.

The marbles will sample the grooves on the slope, and come to rest at the lowest points.

He died in Edinburgh on 26 September 1975.

Waddington was married twice.